Realism is one of the foundational theories in the field of International Relations (IR). Known for its pragmatic and often cynical view of international politics, realism focuses on the pursuit of power, national interest, and the inevitability of conflict in an anarchic world. Realists argue that states are the primary actors in global politics and that their actions are driven by a desire for security and survival in a system without a central authority. This perspective has had a profound impact on global politics, shaping foreign policy decisions, international relations strategies, and the understanding of conflicts between states.
In this article, we will explore the core principles of realism, its historical roots, and its impact on contemporary global politics.
Key Principles of Realism
At its core, realism is built around several key principles that provide a framework for understanding international relations:
1. Anarchy in the International System
Realists believe that the international system is anarchic, meaning that there is no overarching authority above states to govern their behavior. Unlike domestic politics, where a government enforces laws, in the international arena, no institution or power can compel states to comply with laws or agreements. In this environment, states are responsible for their own security and must rely on their own resources to protect themselves from external threats. This anarchic system is the primary driver of conflict and competition between states.
2. The Primacy of Power
For realists, power is the central currency of international relations. States seek to maximize their power in order to ensure their survival and security. Power, in this context, refers not only to military might but also to economic strength, political influence, and strategic alliances. Realists argue that because the international system is anarchic and states cannot fully trust one another, the pursuit of power is a natural and rational response to the uncertainties and dangers of international politics.
3. National Interest and Survival
Realism posits that the primary goal of any state is to ensure its own survival and protect its national interests. While states may engage in trade, diplomacy, or cooperation, their primary objective is to safeguard their sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political autonomy. Realists argue that states must be prepared to use force or coercion when necessary to defend these interests. As such, international relations are often characterized by competition and conflict, as states pursue their own agendas, sometimes at the expense of others.
4. Human Nature and Conflict
Realist theory is often linked to a pessimistic view of human nature. Realists argue that humans are inherently self-interested, and this behavior is reflected in the actions of states. According to this view, just as individuals may act in ways that benefit themselves at the expense of others, so too do states act to increase their power and security, often leading to conflict. This emphasis on conflict and the inevitability of competition sets realism apart from other theories that emphasize cooperation and harmony in international relations.
5. Security Dilemma
The security dilemma is a key concept in realism. It describes the situation in which the actions taken by one state to increase its security (such as military buildup or forming alliances) lead other states to feel insecure, prompting them to take similar actions. This can create a vicious cycle of escalating tensions, even when no state originally intended to provoke conflict. The security dilemma explains why military rivalries, arms races, and regional conflicts often arise between states that feel threatened by one another.
Historical Roots of Realism
Realism in International Relations has deep historical and philosophical roots. The ideas of realism can be traced back to political thinkers like Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes, who emphasized the inevitability of conflict, the pursuit of power, and the importance of survival in a chaotic and uncertain world.
- Thucydides, in his account of the Peloponnesian War, argued that “the strong do what they have the power to do, and the weak accept what they have to accept.” His view of international relations was one where power struggles and self-interest drove the actions of states.
- Niccolò Machiavelli, a Renaissance political theorist, in his work The Prince, also viewed human nature as inherently selfish and believed that leaders should act pragmatically, using whatever means necessary—including manipulation and force—to achieve and maintain power.
- Thomas Hobbes, in his political philosophy, described the state of nature as a “war of all against all,” in which individuals act according to their own self-interest, leading to conflict. This view of human nature laid the foundation for the realist understanding of international politics as a struggle for power and security.
In the 20th century, realism became formalized as a major theory in International Relations by scholars like Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz. Morgenthau’s work, Politics Among Nations (1948), laid the intellectual groundwork for modern realism, emphasizing the role of power and the inevitability of conflict in international relations. Waltz, in Theory of International Politics (1979), further developed the theory, introducing structural realism or neorealism, which focuses on the structure of the international system (i.e., the anarchy) as the primary determinant of state behavior.
The Impact of Realism on Global Politics
Realism has had a profound impact on how states interact on the global stage, influencing foreign policy decisions, military strategy, and international diplomacy. Several key areas demonstrate the influence of realism in global politics:
1. The Cold War and the Balance of Power
The Cold War is perhaps the most prominent example of realism’s influence on global politics. The conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, two superpowers vying for global influence, was largely driven by the realist logic of power and security. Both sides sought to maximize their power through military buildup, alliances, and ideological competition, resulting in an arms race and numerous proxy wars around the world.
The concept of balance of power—a key realist idea—was central to Cold War politics. Both the U.S. and the USSR sought to prevent the other from gaining dominance, and much of the conflict was framed as a struggle to maintain equilibrium in the global balance of power.
2. Military Alliances and Deterrence
Realism has also shaped the formation of military alliances, such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and the Warsaw Pact, which were established during the Cold War to counterbalance the power of opposing states. The concept of deterrence, particularly nuclear deterrence, is another direct result of realist thinking. States with nuclear weapons maintain these arsenals not only for defensive purposes but also to prevent other states from attacking them through the threat of mutually assured destruction (MAD).
3. Regional Conflicts and Power Struggles
Realism continues to explain many contemporary regional conflicts, where power struggles, territorial disputes, and security concerns remain central. In the Middle East, for example, the ongoing conflict between Israel and its neighbors, the rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran, and the U.S. military presence in the region are all driven by realist concerns about national security, regional dominance, and the protection of strategic interests.
In the South China Sea, territorial disputes between China, Vietnam, the Philippines, and other countries are framed in terms of competing interests over resources, military positioning, and regional hegemony. Similarly, Russia’s actions in Ukraine and its annexation of Crimea in 2014 can be understood through a realist lens, as Russia seeks to maintain its sphere of influence and secure its borders from what it perceives as NATO encroachment.
4. The Role of National Interest in Foreign Policy
Realism also emphasizes the importance of national interest in shaping foreign policy decisions. States are seen as rational actors who pursue policies based on what is in their own strategic interest, regardless of ideological or moral considerations. For example, U.S. foreign policy decisions in the Middle East, such as the invasion of Iraq in 2003, were driven by a combination of security concerns, access to oil, and the desire to maintain regional influence, rather than by humanitarian motives.
5. Criticisms of Global Institutions
Realism also offers a skeptical view of international institutions. While liberals argue that institutions like the United Nations (UN) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) can promote cooperation and peace, realists contend that these institutions are often ineffective at managing conflict because they cannot change the fundamental nature of the international system. States may cooperate in these institutions, but only when it aligns with their national interests. In this sense, realism critiques the liberal vision of global governance and cooperation.
Criticisms of Realism
Realism has faced criticism from other schools of thought, particularly liberalism and constructivism. Critics argue that realism is overly deterministic and pessimistic, focusing too heavily on conflict and power struggles while neglecting the potential for cooperation, diplomacy, and the promotion of human rights. Liberals, for example, emphasize the role of international institutions, economic interdependence, and democratic values in fostering peace. Constructivists, on the other hand, argue that ideas, norms, and identities shape state behavior, rather than purely material factors like power.
Conclusion
Realism remains a central theory in the study of international relations, providing a powerful framework for understanding global politics. Its emphasis on power, security, and the anarchic nature of the international system has shaped the way states interact with one another, from the Cold War to modern-day conflicts. While realism’s focus on competition and conflict can sometimes seem cynical or overly deterministic, it offers valuable insights into the motivations and behavior of states in a world that remains marked by uncertainty and power struggles. Understanding realism is crucial for anyone seeking to grasp the complexities of global politics and the forces that drive international relations.